Silver is a very effective bactericide and fungicide.
The silver ion concentrations that exhibits antibacterial
properties is roughly 0.1 μg/L, or 10–9 mol/L; the
concentration for fungicidal activity is 1.9 μg/L (15, 16).
Silver appears to have higher toxicity for bacteria than
do more notorious antimicrobial metals such as mercury,
copper, lead, chromium, and tin (17). Its mammalian
toxicity, however, is relatively low. Human serum
concentrations of up to 600 μg/L and urine concentrations
of 1,100 μg/24 h have been observed with no clinical
consequences (1 7). Perhaps most importantly, no
mutagenic or carcinogenic activity has been reported
for silver.
The mechanisms of the antimicrobial action of sil-
1. Silver ions form insoluble compounds in the cell
wall with (and thereby inactivate) sulfhydryl
groups, which are essential components of enzymes
responsible for transmembranous energy
metabolism and electrolyte transport. The result
is a loss of fluids and electrolytes from the organisms,
which dry out and die.
2. Silver ions block the respiratory chain of bacteria
in the cytochrome oxidase and NADH-succinate-
dehydroginase region.
3. Silver ions enter the cell and bind to bacterial
DNA and bacterial spores. Silver can complex
with electron donor groups that contain oxygen
or nitrogen. Reversible binding of bases occurs
without aggregation or disruption of the double
helix structure of the cell nucleus. Intercalation
of silver can lead to increased stability of the
double helix.
4. Silver ions in low concentrations may penetrate a
bacterial cell and cause structural damage to the
cell envelope. Upon entering the cell, the molecule
may dissociate, after which the silver binds
to the DNA.
5. Metal ions, particularly silver, can also bond to
phosphate groups, forming a positive dipole on
the phosphate, followed by formation of a cyclic
phosphate and cleavage of these molecules at the
phosphodiester bond.
6. Silver DNA complexes occur at bases, which
cause denaturation by displacing hydrogen bonds
between adjacent nitrogens of purines and pyrimidines,
thereby preventing replication.
Note that all these mechanisms relate to solvated silver
ions, Ag+. The antibacterial properties of any metal
come from its ions, which are generated from the neutral
metal (1 5). In the presence of oxygen, metallic silver
can be bactericidal because silver (I) oxide is soluble
enough to release free silver ions (18). When dealing
with metallic silver, though, it is important to note that
antimicrobial activity depends on the extent of the active
silver surface (19). Even if all the silver ions in a
wood treatment were to be reduced to silver metal,
there would still be a great deal of surface area to provide
anti-microbial protection. However, after treatment
and drying, both insoluble silver salts and bound silver
metal are likely to be present in significant amounts. To
determine the actual proportions will take further
study.
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